Synthesise a range of theories, principles and practices of mentoring and coaching leading to critical insights which are at the forefront of professional practices.
Origins of mentoring
The western practice of mentoring finds the origin of the word rooted in Greek Mythology. In Homers lyrical classic The Odyssey, the king of Ithaca sets out to fight the ill fated Trojan War. He leaves his household in the care of his old trusted friend Mentor. It was in the way that Mentor cared, guided and prepared Odysseus son Telemachus to take up the search for his father. In this epic tale Mentor is actually the Goddess Athena who finally helps reunite Telemachus and Odysseus casting out the usurpers to his throne.
The term mentor has become synonymous with Athena’s preparation and instruction of the young Telemachus as a method of preparing a student for the challenges and responsibilities that may lay ahead. In addition this concept of trusted adviser, friend, teacher and wise counselor (Shea, 1997) has become part of the entomology of the word mentor and found its way into the commonly accepted definition of the word. Defining the key qualities of a mentor according to Guest (2000) can be as simple as looking at Homers myth.
· Is a wise and trusted counsellor
· Is suitably experienced and qualified
· Has previously travelled the mentee's path
· Acts in confidence, advises and guides
· Stimulates professional development.
He goes on to say that some aspects of mentoring include
· A long-term process
· Sharing experience
· Offering encouragement
· Insight through reflection
· Mutual learning - it is a two- way relationship
Western ideas of mentoring have been shaped by this model, it should be mentioned here that Eastern ideas of mentoring are equally rooted in such mythic roots, the Indian concept of a Guru, or the Persian model of Murshud. Often linking the spiritual and worldly goals of powerful men and women to a process of learning that benefits both mentor and mentee. This formal role of mentor and mentee has often been naturally occurring in Eastern civilizations (Darling et al,2002) Where social roles and socialization processes combine to provide the functional aspects of mentoring and key qualities of a mentor, similar if not exactly the same, as Homers (much more recent) model. I explore this theme in greater detail in the documentary supplied with this work “Don’t Tell the king,” shot in Thailand using the backdrop of Theravada Buddhism.
A definition of mentoring
In her book ‘Transformational Mentoring, Hay (1995) describes mentoring as a ‘developmental alliance ‘; that is a relationship between equals in which someone is helped to develop themselves. In recent years the concept of ‘mentoring’ seems to have gained a strong hold in many different organisations (Megginson and Clutterbuck, 1995) However this concepts seems to have evolved over time from a ‘ambitious authority figure’ (Stodgill, 1960) to a ‘transitional figure in a man’s life’ (Levinson, 1970)
Clutterbuck (2004) states that modern mentoring has its origins in the apprenticeships of the pre-industrialised and early industrialised world. A work place that was dominated by the guild and craftsman. In this model the apprentice was taken under the wing of an older, more experience master craftsman, skills and knowledge would be taught on a one to one basis. With key abilities kept within the company and not lost to commercial competitors.
This model of mentoring was lost through the rise of the Industrial revolution, which focused on mass labour and mass training. Workers became part of the mechanical process. Even here some industries, notably the creative industries have kept mentoring alive, and even in industry it is not uncommon for certain workers to be ‘groomed’ for better positions by managers. The spirit of mentoring therefore remains alive.
A more contemporary definition of mentoring int he UK and Europe has tended to follow the lines of the European Mentoring and Coaching Council- mentoring is 'off-line help by one person to another in making significant transitions in knowledge, work or thinking' (Clutterbuck and Megginson, 1995) In this definition the mentor can offer help, advice and resources. Cluuterbuck and Megginson do not seem to see this as a hierarchical relationship more a difference of experience levels between mentor and mentee. It is in this specific difference that one may support and the other benefit. They also define those moments when mentoring might be appropriate, describing them as ‘significant transitions’ In this instance both mentor and mentee must develop a clear purpose to their arrangement, with defined and achievable goals.
Bennets (1994) defines a mentor as ‘that person who achieves a one to one developmental relationship with a learner, and one whom the learner identifies as having enabled personal growth to take place’
Parsole (1992) who initially employed the term ‘mentoree’ or ‘mentee’ describes this process as ‘...help and support people to manage their own learning in order to maximise their potential, develop their skills, improve their performance, and become the person they want to be.’ In this definition the mentoree has clear defined outcomes of the process that is being undertaken.
Principles of Mentoring
Clutterbuck (2004) suggests that there are four major roles defined for the mentor through the purpose of the mentoring of relationship. These are described as ‘helping roles’
Four basic styles of helping
Directive
COACHING GUIDING
Stretching Nurturing
NEWORKING COUNSELLING
Non-directive
Coaching for Clutterbuck (2001) is a ‘relatively directive means of helping someone develop competence’ This is because it is the coach that is in charge of the process. For Clutterbuck coaches are critical friends who challenge and display something that a learner might find it difficult to do.
Counselling is a relatively non directive means of helping someone cope. For Clutterbuck it is ‘by acting as a sounding board, helping someone structure and analyse career-influencing decisions’ Techniques as simple as listening actively make the mentor part of support structure of the career and personal development of the mentee.
Networking supports a mentee to function effectively within an organisation. Clutterbuck separates Organisational networks and Influence Networks,
‘...effective mentors help mentees develop self-resourcefulness by making them aware of the plethora of influence and information resources available to them’
Guiding effectively acting as a guardian is for Clutterbuck an often one of the most misunderstood purposes of a mentor. It is also the most frequently used and most hands on of the four styles. Here the mentor is oalmost like a role model who at an extreme may become sponsors or godfathers taking a very direct interest in the learners development. Clutterbuck notes how this could be ‘...very stifling for the recipient, who may not be in a position to resist this largesse should the learner prefer to succeed by his or her own resources’
For Clutterbuck mentoring is the blending of the four styles. With the core skill of a mentor being able to apply and demonstrate each style at the appropriate time;
‘thus, the effective mentor may use the challenging behaviours of stretch coaching at one point and the empathetic listening of counselling a short while later’ Clutterbuck (2004)
To this end the organisational culture or even national culture define what is appropriate behaviour for a mentor. This can vary wildly.
Developmental Mentoring
COACHING GUIDING
NETWORKING COUNSELLING
Developmental mentoring ensures that the relationship remains balanced and with each style of mentoring employed in balance with the other.
Sponsoring mentoring
COACHING GUIDING
NETWORKING COUNSELLING
Clutterbuck described the US model of mentoring as heavily favouring the guardian role, essentially this model emphasises the use of power and influence where as the developmental model empowers then individual and promotes personal accountability.
The role of the mentor could therefore radically alter the organisational outcomes that are desired. It is important to define these at the very outset as they effect the relationship between mentor and mentee.
Principles of coaching
Clutterbuck (2004) sets a useful distinction between mentoring and coaching, alluding also to the frequent confusion amongst even experienced practioners as to the differences between the two terms. Even though both practices share the same tools and approaches Clutterbuck states that ‘…coaching is primarily focused within the current job and emphasises the development of skills. Mentoring is primarily focused on longer term goals and on developing capability’
So where coaching may be concerned with a specific task mentoring might be concerned with the implications beyond that task. In coaching the agenda is set by or with the coach, in mentoring the agenda is set by the learner. Coaching emphasises the feedback to the learner and mentoring emphasises feedback and reflection by the learner.
The International Coaching Federation defines Coaching as ‘…an ongoing relationship that focuses on clients taking action towards the realization of their vision, goals or desires’ (Bennetts C, 1994) the emphasis of coaching is very much lead by the person who requires the development, and seems to be in directed by the same person.
However some of Clutterbuck assertions in this area have issues and seem to be at odds with ICF practices. Clutterbuck (2004) describes for basic styles of coaching:
· Tell: coach agrees with the learner a task. Then feeds back on the task and how to improve it.
· Show: the coach demonstrated the task and asks the learner to copy what they have done so that they can discuss what happens.
· Suggest: “When you do this task think about the following things…” approach
· Stimulate: through self analytical dialogue, reflection and intrinsic feedback the coach emphasises questioning rather than advising.
Although Clutterbuck concedes that coaching and mentoring share Suggest and Stimulate styles, he argues that the Tell and Show aspects are unique to coaching. Jonson (2004) suggests in her strategies for a good mentor that elements of both the Tell and Show are key areas for mentoring a new teacher. Like ‘…giving feedback on the mentees progress in meeting personal and institutional goals’ or ‘…encourage the mentee in her efforts to develop her own ideas, teaching style and classroom management plans’ or even ‘assist the mentees in building competencies in areas of concern identified by the mentee, at the request of the mentee’ (Jonson, 2004) might all fall within the Show and Tell parameters defined by Clutterbuck.
To this end the practices of coaching as defined by the ICF are far more specialized. Often used to develop specific aspects of a professional learners practice. In terms of co-coaching CUREE (Centre For the Use of Research and Evidence in Education ) describes coaching as a ‘…structured, sustained process between two or more professional learners to enable them to embed new knowledge and skills from specialist sources in day-to-day practice.’ (CUREE, 2004)
Coaching therefore seems to apply to more experienced practioners, with the differences between coaching and mentoring being largely an interpretation of the needs and requirements of both mentor and mentee or coach and coached. It is within the context of professional goals and outcomes that the approach should be defined with the view that both terms have their implicit and explicit definitions but share a host of tools between them. The consensus in this area is clearly the right tool for the job.
Benefits of Coaching and Mentoring
| For Mentors · Refreshes own view of work · Enhances job satisfaction · Encourages self-reflection · Develops professional relationships · Enhances peer recognition · Encourages a proactive role in learning and development |
Benefits of Mentoring Clutterbuck (2004)
| For New Staff · Improves self-confidence · Offers professional development · Provides advice and information · Encourages reflection on practice · Provides personal support · Improves effectiveness · Develop awareness of culture, politics and philosophy of the organisation · Gives access to a ‘sounding board’ for concerns, issues and ideas |
| For the School/Unit/University · Enables faster induction of new staff · Enhances individual performance · Enhances team performance · Improves communication · Encourages reflective practice · Promotes a climate of professional development · Builds mentoring capacity · Encourages commitment to the organisation |
Looking at the above diagram it is apparent that the implications of mentoring can be very positive on an organisation. Clutterbuck concentrates on the process of mentoring and how this is achieved, for him it is the breakdown in this process that would give any basis to criticising mentoring and coaching as a technique. It would be the procedure that is at fault and no real criticism exists for the actual process of mentoring, which seems for him, sacrosanct.
Honey and Mumford with their work on Learning Styles could provide an approach to criticising mentoring as a process. Where ‘mentoring’ with its strong focus on reflective practice, may not be the preferred learning style or conducive to the development of particular employees.
References
1. Bennetts, C. (1994) Mentors, Mirrors and reflective Practitioners; an inquiry into informal mentor/learner relationships, M.Ed dissertation, The University of Sheffield
2. Centre For the Use of Research and Evidence in Education (CUREE) http://www.curee-paccts.com/ accessed 10/01/2009
3. Clutterbuck, D. (2004) Everyone Needs a Mentor (3rd edition),London: CIPD
4. Darling, Nancy ; Hamilton, Stephen ; Toyokawa, Teru ; Matsuda, Sei (2002) American Journal of Community Psychology Naturally occurring mentoring in Japan and the United States: Social roles and correlates http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/browse_R_A087 accessed 3/02/2009
5. Guest, G. (2000) Coaching and Mentoring in Learning Organizations.
Unpublished: Presented at 5th International ASHRM Conference in Bahrain in Mentoring and Coaching: Definitions and Differences online at http://wwwreobertsoncooper.com/coaching_mentoring/defintions_differences.html, accessed 11/05/2008
6. Honey, P & Mumford, A (1992) The manual of learning styles. Maidenhead: Peter Honey
7. Jonson, K (2002) Being and effective mentor. London, Cornwall press
8. Levinson, D. (1978) The Season’s of a man’s Life. New York, Alfred Knopf
9. Shea, G.F., (1997) Mentoring. Revised edition. USA, Crisp Publications, Inc
10. Stodgill, R. (1960’s) in Chapman, M. (1998) ‘Into the breach’, People Management. 10 December 1998, online at http://www.cipd.co.uk, accessed 16/05/02
Bibliography
1. Clutterbuck, D. (2004) Everyone Needs a Mentor (3rd edition),London: CIPD
2. Honey, P & Mumford, A (1992) The manual of learning styles. Maidenhead: Peter Honey
3. http://mentorsforum.co.uk, various articles
